In one general case, we have a situation such as
For example, an equation such as
The methods for solving equations generally depend on the type of equation, both the kind of expressions in the equation and the kind of values that may be assumed by the unknowns. The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods. Only a few specific types are mentioned below; a comprehensive treatment is not possible.
In general, given a class of equations, there may be no systematic method (algorithm) that is guaranteed to work. This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort. But this also reflects that, in general, no such method can exist: some problems are known to be unsolvable by an algorithm, such as Hilbert's tenth problem, which was proved unsolvable in 1970.
For several classes of equations, algorithms have been found for solving them, some of which have been implemented and incorporated in computer algebra systems, but often require no more sophisticated technology than pencil and paper. In some other cases, heuristic methods are known that are often successful but that are not guaranteed to lead to success.
As with all kinds of problem solving, trial and error may sometimes yield a solution, in particular where the form of the equation, or its similarity to another equation with a known solution, may lead to an "inspired guess" at the solution. If a guess, when tested, fails to be a solution, consideration of the way in which it fails may lead to a modified guess.
In general, however, Diophantine equations are among the most difficult equations to solve.
Given a function h : A → B, the inverse function, denoted h−1, defined as h−1 : B → A is a function such that
If just one solution will do, instead of the full solution set, it is actually sufficient if only the functional identity
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- ƒ (x1,...,xn) = c,
- ƒ −1[c] = {(a1,...,an) ∈ T1×···×Tn | ƒ (a1,...,an) = c},
For example, an equation such as
- 3x + 2y = 21z
- 3x + 2y − 21z = 0
- {(x, y, z) | 3x + 2y − 21z = 0}.
The methods for solving equations generally depend on the type of equation, both the kind of expressions in the equation and the kind of values that may be assumed by the unknowns. The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods. Only a few specific types are mentioned below; a comprehensive treatment is not possible.
In general, given a class of equations, there may be no systematic method (algorithm) that is guaranteed to work. This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort. But this also reflects that, in general, no such method can exist: some problems are known to be unsolvable by an algorithm, such as Hilbert's tenth problem, which was proved unsolvable in 1970.
For several classes of equations, algorithms have been found for solving them, some of which have been implemented and incorporated in computer algebra systems, but often require no more sophisticated technology than pencil and paper. In some other cases, heuristic methods are known that are often successful but that are not guaranteed to lead to success.
Brute force, trial and error, inspired guess
If the solution set of an equation is restricted to a finite set (as is the case for equations in modular arithmetic, for example), or can be limited to a finite number of possibilities (as is the case with some Diophantine equations), the solution set can be found by brute force, that is, by testing each of the possible values. It may be the case, though, that the number of possibilities to be considered, although finite, is so huge that an exhaustive search is not practically feasible; this is, in fact, a requirement for strong encryption methods.As with all kinds of problem solving, trial and error may sometimes yield a solution, in particular where the form of the equation, or its similarity to another equation with a known solution, may lead to an "inspired guess" at the solution. If a guess, when tested, fails to be a solution, consideration of the way in which it fails may lead to a modified guess.
Elementary algebra
Equations involving linear or simple rational functions of a single real-valued unknown, say x, such asSystems of linear equations
Smaller systems of linear equations can be solved likewise by methods of elementary algebra. For solving large systems numerically, algorithms are used that are based on linear algebra.Polynomial equations
Main article: Solving polynomial equations
See also: Systems of polynomial equations
Polynomial equations of degree up to four can be solved exactly using algebraic methods, of which the quadratic formula
is the simplest example. Polynomial equations with a degree of five or
higher require in general numerical methods (see below) or special
functions such as Bring radicals, although some specific cases may be solvable algebraically, for example- 4x5 − x3 − 3 = 0
- x6 − 5x3 + 6 = 0,
Diophantine equations
In Diophantine equations the solutions are required to be integers. In some case a brute force approach can be used, as mentioned above. In some other cases, in particular if the equation is in one unknown, it is possible to solve the equation for rational-valued unknowns (see Rational root theorem), and then find solutions to the Diophantine equation by restricting the solution set to integer-valued solutions. For example, the polynomial equationIn general, however, Diophantine equations are among the most difficult equations to solve.
Inverse functions
See also: Inverse problem
In the simple case of a function of one variable, say, h(x), we can solve an equation of the form- h(x) = c, c constant
Given a function h : A → B, the inverse function, denoted h−1, defined as h−1 : B → A is a function such that
- h−1(h(x)) = h(h−1(x)) = x.
- h(x) = c, where c is a constant value in B,
- h−1(h(x)) = h−1(c)
- x = h−1(c)
If just one solution will do, instead of the full solution set, it is actually sufficient if only the functional identity
- h(h−1(x)) = x
- π1(x, y) = c
- (x, y) = π1−1(c) = (c, 0).
Factorization
If the left-hand side expression of an equation P = 0 can be factorized as P = QR, the solution set of the original solution consists of the union of the solution sets of the two equations Q = 0 and R = 0. For example, the equationNumerical methods
With more complicated equations in real or complex numbers, simple methods to solve equations can fail. Often, root-finding algorithms like the Newton–Raphson method can be used to find a numerical solution to an equation, which, for some applications, can be entirely sufficient to solve some problem.Taylor series
One well-studied area of mathematics involves examining whether we can create some simple function to approximate a more complex equation near a given point. In fact, polynomials in one or several variables can be used to approximate functions in this way – these are known as Taylor series.Matrix equations
Equations involving matrices and vectors of real numbers can often be solved by using methods from linear algebra.Differential equations
There is a vast body of methods for solving various kinds of differential equations, both numerically and analytically. A particular class of problem that can be considered to belong here is integration, and the analytic methods for solving this kind of problems are now called symbolic integration.To Join Ajit Mishra's Online Classroom CLICK HERE
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